1. Introduction

      The end of World War II ignited a wave of national liberation in Asia as it had disrupted existing socio-economic structures within colonies, creating new aspirations and a desire for a future free from foreign control and exploitation. Despite having different histories, oppressed nations share the same goal: independence and freedom. But does overthrowing foreign domination mean complete liberation? This writing provides an overview of national liberation struggles in the countries of Malaysia, Vietnam, and Indonesia, while also exploring the challenges they faced after gaining independence.

 

2. The Malaysian Internal Racial Tensions to Political Sovereignty (1945 - 1963)

       The period following World War II in Malaya was characterized by more than just the transfer of power from British colonial authorities. As local political forces began to coalesce, deep-seated racial tensions, primarily between the Malays and the Chinese. This internal friction, even as the British aimed to transfer control (Andaya & Andaya, 2016), fundamentally shaped the trajectory of the nation and the extent of liberation achieved.

 

      The formation of UMNO in 1946, initially driven by Malay concerns over the Malayan Union proposal to protect their privileges, and the rise of leftist movements, drawing significant support from the Chinese and Indian communities, further complicated the political landscape (Andaya & Andaya, 2016). These tensions culminated in the Malayan Emergency (1948 - 1960), a conflict between British colonial forces and communist insurgents, primarily from the Chinese community, who sought to overthrow colonial rule. In response, Britain and the local authorities use a long-term, relatively low-cost yet successful strategy involving separating the guerrillas from their popular support and reducing their numbers (Robert W. Komer, 1972). This event arguably fostered tension and hinder the development of a truly unified national identity built on shared aspirations. 

 

      In 1957, the Federation of Malaya declared its independence, which then merged with Sarawak, North Borneo, and Singapore in 1963, leading to the formation of Malaysia. However, this country further faces significant political instabilities in the next few decades, including confrontations with Indonesia (1963 - 1966); and the unilateral expulsion of Singapore (1965). While the achievement of independence in 1957 was a momentous occasion, freeing Malaya from direct British domination, it did not automatically translate to complete liberation from internal divisions which remained an ongoing and complex problem.

 

3. Vietnamese Liberation Movement: Struggle through hardships (1941-1954)

        In the early 20th century, the enemy oppressed all the Vietnamese liberation movements, creating a crisis in finding the right liberation path. Nguyen Ai Quoc (later known as Ho Chi Minh) resolved the crisis by adopting Marxism-Leninism, especially through the founding of the Communist Party of Viet Nam in 1930 (Ngo Vuong Anh, 2023). Since the day of its establishment, with the right guidelines and receiving the trust of the people, the Party became the leader of the struggle for national liberation of Viet Nam (To Lam, 2025).

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    The Party prepared for the national liberation movement carefully, taking experience from previous movements (Vu Trong Lam, 2024). In August 1945, Japanese fascist forces surrendered to the Allies. This opened a ‘once-in-a-lifetime’ chance for the revolution in Viet Nam, and also in many Asian nations Japan was occupying. The people, under the preparation and leadership from the Party, carried out the August Revolution of 1945 under the banner of the Viet Minh front. On September 2nd of 1945, Ho Chi Minh, Chairman of the Provisional Government, declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Viet Nam (DRV). The declaration gave Vietnamese hope for the future of their nation, and that colonialism will be behind them, while not everything can be established instantly as a fact (David G. Marr, 2013).

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       The DRV had been starting to be built, while the French maneuvered to restore colonialism, starting in the South. Despite Ho Chi Minh's diplomacy efforts, the French continue with their plan to reestablish control in Viet Nam. In December 1946, Ho Chi Minh declared National Resistance. Up to that point, the Party was also aware of the changing world order post-World War, and tried to get the support from both the Soviet Union and the United States (David G. Marr, 2013). Despite the efforts, the first few years of the Vietnamese resistance against the French (First Indochina War) was mostly self-reliance in very harsh conditions. Only after the Chinese Revolution (1949) victory did Viet Nam get true allies and move the war into a drastic phase  (Thuan & Minh Thuan, 2024). After the victory in Dien Bien Phu (1954), the French were made to sign the Geneva Accords about Indochina (To Lam, 2025). In late 1954, the Geneva Accords were partly executed, leading to the liberation of Northern Viet Nam and French withdrawal. The Geneva Accords 1954 and the general outcome of the war showed the intentions of major powers during the Cold War, but it is still a valuable victory and experience for Vietnamese people (Thuan & Minh Thuan, 2024). The Vietnamese then have to continue their struggle through the resistance war against the American (Vietnam War) for another 20 years. But in the end, the Vietnamese people got the complete liberation and peace that they had hoped for since 1945.

 

4. Indonesia’s Struggle for Sovereignty in a Post-Colonial World (1945-1965)

        The Indonesian independence movement culminated in 1949 after decades of nationalist resistance against Dutch rule and Japanese occupation (George, 2000). While parallels exist with Vietnam’s struggle (Kroef, 1952), Indonesia’s post-independence trajectory diverged as it fell under U.S. influence.

 

       Under the leadership of Sukarno, the country achieved independence in 1949 after a prolonged period of armed struggle and diplomatic pressure (George, 2000). In this period, Indonesia pursued an independent foreign policy, championing the Non-Aligned Movement and maintaining ties with communist states (White, 2017). However, his socialist-leaning policies and domestic unrest alarmed Western powers, particularly the U.S. (Fealy & McGregor, 2010).

 

      This Non-Aligned approach, however, would not save Sukarno from the encroaching tide of American ambitions. The nation experienced a political shift in the 1960s when Sukarno was overthrown in a military coup backed by the United States (Fealy and McGregor, 2010). General Suharto’s regime, which took power in 1967, aligned closely with Western interests, particularly in suppressing leftist movements and integrating Indonesia into the capitalist world order. Under Suharto’s New Order, Indonesia became a key ally of the U.S. in Southeast Asia, prioritizing economic development under Western-backed policies while systematically eliminating communist influence (Smith, 2003).

 

      Ultimately, Indonesia’s independence and post-independence struggle reflects a broader pattern seen in many decolonized nations. While the initial fight for sovereignty succeeded, failure to balance between the Cold War powers resulted in the nation falling victim to foreign imperialist meddlings, forever shaping Indonesia's long-term direction (Fealy and McGregor, 2010). This is most evident through the U.S.-backed military coup of 1965, which redirected Indonesia’s course, ensuring its alignment with Western interests rather than achieving complete independence. 

 

5. Overall Conclusion 

      After World War 2, the weakening of the colonial powers created the opportunity for many national liberation movements in Asia to achieve victory. Gaining independence doesn’t immediately bring an end to imperialists interference for these nations. Even though they finally gained their liberation, the impact of those times still leaves a mark in their history, and the history of international relations.

      

     The decline of colonialism after World War II created favorable conditions for the rise of national liberation movements across Asia, with Malaysia, Vietnam, and Indonesia serving as prominent examples. Within the broader context of the Cold War, the process of decolonization unfolded in various forms. In most cases, oppressed peoples fighting for independence encountered military resistance from former colonial powers, as well as significant socio-economic challenges. Eventually, the emergence of numerous newly independent and fragile states in Asia and Africa brought about considerable changes in international relations.

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(Posted in June 2025)​

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AUTHORS

Vo Nguyen Chi Thanh, Faculty of International Politics and Diplomacy, 51st cohort, Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam.

Nguyen Quoc Trung, Economics and Finance, RMIT University.

​Dang Ngoc Anh, Faculty of International Politics and Diplomacy, 51st cohort, Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam.

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GRAPHIC DESIGNER

Vu Ngoc Truc Linh, Faculty of International Communication and Culture, 50th cohort, Diplomatic Academy of Vietnam.

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REFERENCES

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